BY
REJOICE ASHER
AUGUST 2010
ABSTRACT
This study was aimed at determining the
prevalence of helminth parasites of domestic chickens slaughtered at Gombe main market,
from April- June, 2010. A total of 150 chickens comprising of 75 males and 75
females samples were examined using intestinal scraping method. The overall
prevalence was (8 1.0%). More infections with cestodes were recorded in the
chickens than with nematodes. The following cestodes were identified Raillietina
tetragona (34%), Raillietina echinobothrida (24.0%), Raillietina
cesticillus (21.3%), Hymenolepis carioca (12.0%), Amoebotaenia
cuneata (4.0%). Only one nematode: Ascaridia galli (10.6%) was
identified. Male chickens were found to be more infected (89.3%) than female
chickens (73.3%). Chi-square test revealed a significant difference (P<
0.05) in the infection rates between the sexes. Eighty (53.3%) of the chickens
had single infection, (28.0%) had double infection and (2.6%) had triple
infections. The study suggested that helminthiasis could be an impediment to
local chicken production in Gombe State.
INTRODUCTION
Poultry
are kept in backyards or commercial production systems in most areas of the
world. It is one of the most important source of protein and farm manure, for
man (Kekeocha, 1984; Frantovo, 2000).
Factors
which hinder the development of poultry to its fullest capacity includes; poor
management systems and diseases (Fabiyi, 1972). Intestinal parasitism is a
major problem in poultry especially those reared under the extensive system.
Ajayi and Ajayi (1983), found that the major constraint to poultry production
in Nigeria is helminthiasis. Fabiyi (1972), also reported that helminth parasites
constitute a serious problem and great economic loss to poultry production.
The
diets of chickens consist of grains, seeds, larva and adult stages of various
arthropods, earthworms and snails (Rowan, 1983, Adang, 1999). A considerable
number of arthropods, earthworms and snails, have been implicated as
intermediate hosts of helminths (Soulsby, 1982).
Helminths
cause helminthiasis which is a disease of economic and public health
importance, as it may affect animal health and’ human nutrition, as a result of
losses in egg production and heavy mortality in chickens. It can be a potential
epizoonosis for animals that consume contaminated faeces.
Justification
Poultry
production can play an important role in poverty alleviation and requires less
land and financial investment, thus there is need to conduct a research that
will focus on the best way to promote local poultry production. It is therefore
necessary to survey and identify species of helminth parasites of domestic
birds commonly occurring in this area, because information on the common
helminth parasites of chickens in the area is scanty or unavailable. This study
will therefore provide preliminary information on the subject in this area
Aim and Objectives
The aim of this study was to
provide information on the prevalence of helminth parasites in chickens
slaughtered in Gombe State, using Gombe main market as a case study. This aim was
achieved through the following objectives:
1. To
determine the overall prevalence and site preference of the helminths in the
hosts.
2. To
determine the sex-specific prevalence of the helminth parasites in male and
female hosts.
3. To
collect and preserve the helminths (worms) as laboratory or voucher specimens
for future reference at the Biology laboratory of the Gombe State University,
Gombe.
In Nigeria,
documented evidence abound from Anambra State (Oyeka, 1989), Zaria (Fatihu, et
al., 1991; Oniye, et al., 2001;
Luka and Ndams, 2007) to Plateau State (Fabiyi, 1972).
Matur et al. (2002)
also recorded a prevalence of 90.2% in a study to provide information on the
prevalence of helminth parasites of chickens slaughtered at the Gwagwalada main
market (the FCT, Abuja). The following helminths were identified Ascaridia
gatli (51.60%), Raillietina echinobothrida (91 60%), R. tetragona
(22.20%), Heterakis gallinarum
(31.0%), Hyrnenolepis carioca (23.0%) and Ssyngamus trachea
(1.80%).
Ascaridia
galli has been incriminated as the most common
and most important helminth parasite of poultry (Hodasi, 1978; Luka and Ndams,
2002). The cestodes of significant importance are of the two genera Rallietina
and Hyrnenolepis (Oniye et al., 2001; Luka and Ndams, 2007). Yoriyo et
al. (2008) reported a prevalence of 19.2% while surveying for
gastrointestinal helminths of free ranging chickens in Bauchi and its environs.
The following helminths were identified:
R. teragona,
R. echjnobothrjda, R. cesticillus, C. infundibulum,
Amoebotaenia species., H. carioca, subulura species.., Ascaridia
species.., and Heterakis species.
Yoriyo et al.
(2005) recorded a prevalence of 87.8% in a study to provide information on the
species composition and prevalence of helminths of domestic fowls in Bauchi.
A study in the
arid zone of Nigeria found an infection rate of 56% for cestodes compared with
a 16% infection rate for nematodes (Ahmed and Sinha, 1993).
Morphology and Life cycle
Round worms are
usually elongated cylindrical and unsegmented worms. Tape worms are flattened,
ribbon shaped and usually segmented.
The life cycles
of all the nematodes infecting chickens are direct. Cestodes and the trematodes
require various intermediate hosts to complete their life cycles. The
trematodes require two intermediate gastropod hosts whereas the cestodes
require a single intermediate host (Mc Donald, 1969). These intermediate hosts
typically occur in the same habitats with their hosts. The length of the life
cycle of the various species can last from days to months.
Mode of Infection
The domestic
chickens feed on a wide range of diets, a habit that predisposes them to
parasitic infections (Symth, 1994), with many of the diets carrying stages of
the parasite, there by serving as intermediate hosts.
In round worms
(nematodes) and hair worms (Acanthocephalans) which have direct life cycles,
eggs are passed out in droppings which after a period of time in the
environment become infective. New birds become infected by inadvertently eating
those eggs while feeding, drinking or scratching around in the yards. Once an
egg is swallowed, it hatches and eventually matures into larvae which may
develop into adult worm (Hodasi, 1978). Infection with tape
Clinical signs and
Pathology
Nematodes
constitute the most important group of poultry helminths, both in terms of
number of species and pathology in poultry and game birds (Smyth, 1994).
A large number
of cestodes and trematodes have been described in birds, most of which are of
low pathogenicity (Jordan, 1996). The pathological changes associated with
infection by Cestodes are of little importance especially where infections are
of only a few hundred worms, causing emaciation and depression (McDonald,
1969).
Clinical signs
are more pronounced in chickens up to three months of age after which the worm
burden normally decreases (Jordan, 1996).
Generally, the
clinical signs include loss of appetite, drooping wings, ruffled feathers,
decreased egg production and increased mortality, although with less pathogenic
species, the only signs will be weight loss and poor growth. Jordan (1996)
stated that the earliest signs with pathogenic species may be leg weakness,
paralysis and a sudden increase in daily mortality.
Jordan (1996)
also stated that it is often possible to tell if a chicken is infected by
tapeworms simply by looking at the droppings. Tapeworm eggs are visible white
pellets struck in the droppings.
Diagnosis
Post-mortem
examination is essential to confirm diagnosis and a few sick birds should be
sacrificed for this purpose, so that a fresh material is available. Post mortem
worms are found by careful examination of mucosal washing under a dissecting
microscope (Soulsby, 1982; Fowler, 1996).
Identification
of helminth eggs in faeces is an easy and cheap way to diagnose many helminth
infections and to get an impression of the level of infection in individual as
well as in population level (Fowler 1996).
Lesions
including haemorrhagic enteritis, anaemia and severe diarrhoea may be seen when
large numbers of young parasites penetrate the duodenal or jejunal mucosa
(Jordan and Pattison, 1996; McDonald, 1969).
Prevention and Control
Management
practices largely determine the extent of helminthiasis in chickens (Jordan,
1996). Total enclosure, improvement of cleaning, disinfection procedures and
production according to “all in-all out” principle of helminth infections in
the modern industrial poultry production with the ban on battery cages. New
free-range systems have been developed in which the prevention of helminth
infections has proved to be difficult. The use of out-door areas, where
parasite eggs may persist in the environment for years have increased the risk
of infection.
The purpose of a
parasitic control strategy is to keep the parasite level at a minimum rate to
avoid clinical signs and production losses. Total eradication from a
geographical region is unlikely for most parasites due to the enormous number
of eggs passed out with the faeces and the high persistence of the infective
stages in the environment (Permine et al. 1999).
It is necessary
to have a detailed knowledge about the parasitic infections in the population
i.e. helminth species present and transmission patterns, before choosing and
starting any control program (Permine et al, 1999).
In addition to
management practice, prevention and control can be directed against the
intermediate hosts, this result in interrupting the life cycle of the parasite
in such a way as to break the transmission (Jordan, 1996).
MATERIALS
AND METHODS
Study Area
The research
work was carried out in Gombe main market, located behind Idi prayer ground,
Gombe state.
Gombe town lies
between latitude 10081 N and 1 1°24’N longitude 110021 E and 110181 E. It
experiences two seasons, the wet/rainy season (April to October) and dry season (November to
March). The annual rainfall ranges between 85Onim-l000mm with average daily
temperatures of 34°C in April and 27°C in August. The relative humidity ranges
between 70-80% in August and drops to between 15-20% in December (Gombe master
plan 2030). The natural vegetation of Gombe is typically that of the Sudan
savannah and is composed of shrubs, herbs grasses and sparsely distributed
trees. These provide enough free-range land for chicken rearing.
Sample CoI1ection and
Laboratory Analysis
One hundred and
fifty gastrointestinal tracts are obtained from 75 male and 75 female chickens
collected from the dressing units of the Gombe main market, Gombe, Nigeria. The
chickens were of the local breed and all were adults.
The intestinal
tracts collected from the slaughtered chickens were examined for helminths. The
intestinal tracts of the male chickens were collected separately from those of
the female chickens, to determine the difference in worm infection between the
sexes. The gastrointestinal tracts were separated into small intestine (ileum
and duodenum) and caeca. Each alimentary tract was spread on a dissecting board
and the content was scrapped into Petri dishes containing 0.9% physiological
saline.
The lumen of each
section was opened longitudinally to expose its content as described by Fatihu et
al. (1991). The content was then observed under a stereomicroscope for
helminths. Counting of the collected worms was done with the aid of a pair of
thumb forceps and the morphological appearance of the parasites aided the
separation into tape worms and round worms. Each group was then separated into
different Petri dishes. The dissecting stereomicroscope was used for counting.
Worms from each section were isolated, counted and preserved in labelled vials containing
10% formalin prior to identification.
Parasites were
examined and identified microscopically and by using references of Cheng
(1973), Sousby (1982), Ruff (1984) and Ruprah et al. (1986).
Data Analysis
The term
prevalence was calculated as described by Margolis et al., (1982) and
expressed as a percentage (%), Chi-square test was employed to determine the
association between prevalence and sex.
RESULTS
Out of the 150
gastrointestinal tracts of chickens examined 122 (81.3%) harboured intestinal
helminths. Six species of cestodes. Reillietina cesticillus Molin
1858, 32 (21.3%), R. echinobothrida Megnin 1881, 32(25.3%), R. magninumida
Jones 1930, 5(3.3%), R. tetragonal Molin 1885, 52(34. %),l Amoebotaenia
cuneata Linstow 1972, 6(4.0%), Hymenolepis carioca Magalhaes 1898,
18(12.0%), and one species of nematode Ascaridia galli Schrank 1788, 16(19.6%)
were identified (Table 1).
The predilection
sites for both cestodes and nematodes were the ileum and duodenum (Table 1).
More cestodes
were recovered than nematodes and of the cestodes, higher intensities occurred
with Raillietina tetragona, R. echinobothrida,
R. cesticillus,
Hymenolepis carioca and R. magninumida ranging from 1- 97 worms per
host (Table 1). There was also a high mean worm burden of 20.6±1.05 per host. A
lower worm load was seen in Amoebotaenia cuneata with a range of 1-4
worms and mean number of 2.0±0.02 worms per host.
More infections
occurred in male chickens 67(89.3%0 than in female chickens 55(73.3%) (Table 2
and 3). Chi-square test revealed a significant difference (11<0.05) in the
prevalence of infection between male and female chickens.
The chickens had
higher prevalence of single infections 80(53.3 5), compared to double 38(25.3%)
and triple infections 4(2.7%) whilst 28(18.7%) of the chickens were uninfected
(Table 4). The difference in the prevalence of single, double and triple
infections was significant (P<0.05).
Table 1.0: Prevalence and
predilection site of intestinal helminths of chickens slaughtered at Gombe main
market, Gombe State Nigeria (N=150)
|
Parasite species
|
No. of chickens infected
|
Prevalence (%)
|
Total no of worms recovered
|
Predilection Site
|
Mean Intensity
±S.E
|
Range
|
|
Raillietina tetragonal
|
52
|
34.7
|
740
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
14.2±0.15
|
1-94
|
|
Raillietina
|
38
|
25.3
|
781
|
Doudenum/Ileum
|
20.6±1.05
|
1-97
|
|
Raillietina cesticillus
|
32
|
21.3
|
320
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
10.0±1.02
|
1-65
|
|
Raillietina magninumida
|
5
|
3.3
|
32
|
Doudenum/Ileum
|
6.4±0.20
|
1-10
|
|
Amogninumida
Amoebotaenia
|
6
|
4.0
|
12
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
2.0±0.20
|
1-4
|
|
Hymenolepis Carioca
|
18
|
12.0
|
178
|
Doudenum/Ileum
|
9.9±1.20
|
1-57
|
|
Ascaridia galli
|
16
|
10.7
|
83
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
5.2±1.20
|
|
|
Total
|
122
|
81.3
|
2146
|
Small intestine
|
17. 1.22
|
1-97
|
Table
2.0:
intensities of helmith parasites of male chickens slaughtered at Gombe main
market, Gombe state Nigeria ( =75)
|
Parasite species
|
No. of chickens infected
|
Prevalence (%)
|
Total no of worms recovered
|
Predilection Site
|
Mean Intensity
±S.E
|
Range
|
|
Raillietina tetragona
|
32
|
42.7
|
566
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
17.7±1.21
|
1-94
|
|
Raillietina
|
23
|
30.7
|
596
|
Doudenum/Ileum
|
25.9±0.53
|
1-97
|
|
Raillietina echinobot hrida
|
8
|
10.7
|
56
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
7.0±1.03
|
1-65
|
|
Raillietina cesticillus
|
2
|
2.7
|
20
|
Doudenum/Ileum
|
10.0±1.00
|
1-10
|
|
Raillietina
|
4
|
5.3
|
10
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
2.5±0.52
|
1-4
|
|
Hymenolepis Carioca
|
13
|
17.3
|
143
|
Doudenum/Ileum
|
11.0±0.52
|
1-57
|
|
Ascaridia Galli
|
6
|
8.0
|
30
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
5.0±0.05
|
1-17
|
|
Total
|
67
|
89.3
|
1421
|
Small intestine
|
21. 1.02
|
1-97
|
Table
3.0
Intensities of helminths parasite of female chickens slaughtered in Gombe main
market, Gombe State Nigeria (=75)
|
Parasite species
|
No. of chickens infected
|
Prevalence (%)
|
Total no of worms recovered
|
Predilection Site
|
Mean Intensity
±S.E
|
Range
|
|
Raillietina tetragonal
|
20
|
26.7
|
174
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
8.7±0.54
|
1-31
|
|
Raillietina
|
15
|
20.0
|
185
|
Doudenum/Ileum
|
12.3±0.95
|
1-48
|
|
Raillietina cesticillus
|
24
|
32.0
|
264
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
11.0±0.25
|
1-65
|
|
Raillietina magninumida
|
3
|
4.0
|
12
|
Doudenum/Ileum
|
4.0±0.20
|
1-8
|
|
Amogninumida
Amoebotaenia
|
2
|
2.7
|
2
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
1.0±0.01
|
1-1
|
|
Hymenolepis Carioca
|
5
|
6.7
|
35
|
Doudenum/Ileum
|
7.0±0.15
|
1-19
|
|
Ascaridia galli
|
10
|
13.3
|
53
|
Duodenum/Ileum
|
5.3±0.22
|
1-20
|
|
Total
|
55
|
73.3
|
725
|
Small intestine
|
13.2±1.04
|
1-97
|
Table
4.0:
Prevalence of negative, single and mixed helminth parasite infections in
chickens slaughtered at Gombe main market. Gombe State, Nigeria (N=150)
|
Infection type
|
Parasite
|
Frequency of Occurrence
|
|
|
|
|
Total
|
Percentage (%)
|
|
None
|
|
28
|
18.7
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Single
|
R. echinobothrida
|
22
|
|
|
|
R. tetragonal
|
27
|
|
|
|
R. magninumida
|
2
|
|
|
|
R. cesticillus
|
19
|
|
|
|
Hymenolepis carioca
|
7
|
|
|
|
Ascaridia galli
|
1
|
|
|
|
Amoeboteania cuneata
|
2
|
|
|
|
|
80
|
53.3
|
|
Double
|
Raillietina
tetragonal + R. cesticellus
|
5
|
|
|
|
R. tetragonal + H. carioca
|
3
|
|
|
|
R. tetragonal
+ A. galli
|
3
|
|
|
|
R.
tetragonal + R. magninumida
|
2
|
|
|
|
R.
tetragona + R. echinobothrida
|
10
|
|
|
|
R.
tetragonal + Amoebotania cuneata
|
1
|
|
|
|
R.
cesticillus + H. carioca
|
1
|
|
|
|
R.
cesticillus + A galli
|
6
|
|
|
|
R.
magninumida + H. carioca
|
1
|
|
|
|
R.
echinobothrida + amoebotania
|
1
|
|
|
|
R.
echinobothrida + A.gali
|
2
|
|
|
|
H.
carioca + A. galli
|
1
|
|
|
|
H.
carioca + Amoebotaenia cuneata
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
38
|
25.3
|
|
Triple
|
R. Cestioillus + A. galli + H. carioca
|
1
|
|
|
|
R.
echinobothrida + A. galli + H. carioca
|
1
|
|
|
|
R.
echinobothrida + A. galli + R. tetragona
|
1
|
|
|
|
Amoebotaenia cuneata + A. galli + H. carioca
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
|
2.7
|
Discussion
From the
available literature of helminths of chickens in northern Nigeria, it appears
that enough work has not been done on this aspect of research particularly in
Gombe State.
The overall
prevalence of 81.31% recorded in the present study agrees with the works of
Yoriyo et al. (2005), Luka and Ndams (2007), who found a prevalence of
87.0% and 61.9% in free-ranging chickens in Bauchi and domestic chicken in
Samaru, Zaria respectively.
The differences
in the prevalence of helminths in these studies could be due to the differences
in the incidence of the infective stages and intermediate hosts of the
parasites in places where these chickens feed, the number of birds examined and
the number during which these studies were carried out.
A prominent
feature of this survey was the complete absence of trematodes. This is in
conformity with the works of Fabiyi, (1972), Gadzama and Strlvasnva (1986),
Fatihu et al. (1991), Adang et al. (2008), Yoriyo et at. (2005),
Luka and Ndams (2007), Yoriyo et al. (2008), who similarly found no
tremetode infections among birds examined in different parts of northern
Nigeria. The absence of these worms appeared to be linked with their complex
life cycles requiring at least an intermediate host which is aquatic. This
helps to break the life cycle where water is not available and hence reducing
the spread of the worms.
There was a
higher prevalence and intensities of cestodes in this study. This concurs with
the studies of Oniye et al. (2000), Gadzama et al. (2005), Yoriyo
el al. (2005) and Yoriyo et al. (2008). The cestodes Raillietina
spp., which were the dominant parasites in this study are known to be
cosmopolitan and contribute to nutrient depletion in birds (Cheng, 1973,
Soulsby, 1982). Their intermediate hosts, which are ants and beetles are available
and more abundant in Gombe and may form an important part of the diets of
chickens in Gombe. It is therefore safe to assume that the birds might have
acquired the helminth infections from their diets.
The lower prevalence
in female birds in this study, could be due to the fact that female birds
reduce their feeding habits during the incubation period and concentrate more
on grains and food remnant being served to them during incubation period. Most
farmers take special care of the incubating birds by giving them food and water
to compensate for the time spent in incubatory (Yoriyo, 2005). This reduces the
chances of picking infection. The male birds go far in search of food and mate,
as a result, increase in infection with those species of helminth parasite that
require intermediate hosts occurs.
Single
infections were highest in this study, followed by double infection and then
triple infection. It is possible that the higher prevalence of single species
infections depend on the order of initiation of infection in the hosts, as the
first to infect the host may acquire higher micro-habit and establishment, than
late entrants while this may suggest a form of competition. Kennedy, (1975)
argued that food preference at a particular time may determine the
establishment of the single or mixed infections and older birds tend to
challenge parasites immunologically.
Conclusions
This study
revealed that helminths are common parasites of chickens in Gombe. The
prevalence of the parasites is higher in males than in females.
Cestodes are the most common
helminths in chickens in Gombe.
Recommendation
It is recommended that:
§ Deworming
and treatment of infected birds should be carried out regularly by bird owners,
to minimize the incidence rate of helminthjasis in the area.
§ Control
of the intermediate hosts should be carried out to break transmission of the
parasite.
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